Assigment: Forest Ecology, Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect often gets a bad rap because of its association with global warming, but the truth is we couldn't live without it. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases. About 30 percent of the sunlight that beams toward Earth is deflected by the outer atmosphere and scattered back into space. The rest reaches the planet's surface and is reflected upward again as a type of slow-moving energy called infrared radiation.

The heat caused by infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone and methane, which slows its escape from the atmosphere. Although greenhouse gases make up only about 1 percent of the Earth's atmosphere, they regulate our climate by trapping heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that surrounds the planet. Without this process, scientists estimate that the average temperature on Earth would be colder by approximately 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit), which are far too cold to sustain our current ecosystem.

How Do Humans Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect?

While the greenhouse effect is an essential environmental prerequisite for life on Earth, there really can be too much of a good thing.

The problems begin when human activities distort and accelerate the natural process by creating more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than are necessary to warm the planet to an ideal temperature.

Burning natural gas, coal and oil -including gasoline for automobile engines-raises the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Some farming practices and land-use changes increase the levels of methane and nitrous oxide.

Many factories produce long-lasting industrial gases that do not occur naturally, yet contribute significantly to the enhanced greenhouse effect and "global warming" that is currently under way.

Deforestation also contributes to global warming. Trees use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen in its place, which helps to create the optimal balance of gases in the atmosphere. As more forests are logged for timber or cut down to make way for farming, however, there are fewer trees to perform this critical function.

Population growth is another factor in global warming, because as more people use fossil fuels for heat, transportation and manufacturing the level of greenhouse gases continues to increase. As more farming occurs to feed millions of new people, more greenhouse gases enter the atmosphere.

Ultimately, more greenhouse gases means more infrared radiation trapped and held, which gradually increases the temperature of the Earth's surface and the air in the lower atmosphere.

Assigment: Forest Ecology

Why ecology is important to us.

Ecology is a scientific study of how organisms interact with each other and their environments, forms an essential component of our understanding of the world in which we live. We study ecology for two reasons: to gain the intellectual gratification that comes from understanding natural patterns and processes, and to apply that understanding to environmental problems that confront mankind. As concern rises over the human impact on the environment with mounting evidence of global warming, increasing rates of tropical deforestation, accelerating rates of species extinctions, and expanding use of genetically modified organisms, the need for ecologists to understand and address these problems has never been greater.

Whilst the challenges posed by these problems are enormous, rapid advances in ecology and related environmental sciences are spectacularly increasing our abilities to predict, detect and respond to environmental threats. The unprecedented recent increases in knowledge of organisms, their functioning, genetics, behavior, and interactions with each other are transforming our understanding of life and the best ways to protect and conserve it. The increasing use and applications of biological techniques and information are opening a wide array of new employment opportunities for life sciences graduates. As the importance of ecology has increased in society, the demand for skilled ecologists has expanded not only in environmental monitoring and waste management, but also in research and education, sustainable forestry and agriculture, conservation, bioethics, journalism, law, and a range of technical professions.

As a conclusion, ecology is important to us financially, aesthetically, and also for our simple survival on this planet. A person is a whole and complete system, and that, when making significant change to one part of that system, it was absolutely important to ensure that the system as a whole was not adversely affected. Ecology is so dynamic that even the smallest perturbation can upset everything.

Global Warming

So, I get into a medium level of arguing with VanZiq today, and I dont really have mood to make any post. but lately this weather really turn bad, flood can be read almost all over the place. i guess mother earth is upset with us. this global warming thingy had been around for a while now, but i really cant see any changing that had been done to prevent it and well, it quite disappointing. so, i just want to share with you guys a bit about it. and oh, i do has learn this in class thou. International Forestry class, with my beloved Prof Dr Rusli Mohd who disappointingly give me 'B' for his paper. isk isk isk, very disappointing.


What is global warming?

Global warming is based on a very simple hypothesis. Anthropogenic (human caused) emissions of greenhouse gasses (GHGs) contribute a layer of gasses around earth's atmoshpere. The accumulation of GHGs then blocks some of earth's emanating heat from escaping to space, causing a general heating or global warming pattern.

The global scientific and political community, under the direction of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) identifies six primary greenhouse gases.

* carbon dioxide (CO2)

* methane (CH4)

* nitrous oxide (N2O)

* hydroflurocarbons (HFCs)

* perflourocarbons (PFCs)

* sulphur hexaflouride (SF6)

Considerations about the degree to which GHGs influence climate change deal with two sets of issues. Aggregate emissions trends estimate the volume of each of the six GHGs released into the atmosphere per year. Of equal importance is the relative power of the various GHGs to act as atmospheric road blocks that keep heat in the atmosphere.

Scientists call this road blocking ability the Global Warming Potential (GWP) of a gas. The standard measurement unit is 1 for Carbon, and it turns out Carbon is the least effective of the GHGs in trapping earth's heat. For comparative purposes, over a twenty year time span, Methane's GWP=56, Nitrorus Oxide's GWP=310 and the GWP of the engineered chemicals varies from 460-16,000 (see UNFCCC Global Warming Potential).Each GHG also has a life span, or time it remains stable in the atmosphere. Whereas the numbers for carbon look somewhat benign in terms of its GWP, they start to look a bit more daunting when considered in terms of life span. Scientists estimate that CO2 remains stable in the atmosphere for anywhere from 50-200 years. Methane, on the other hand, remains stable only about 12 years. Nitrous Oxide's life span reaches the 120 year mark. Finally the engineered chemicals may remain stable for anywhere from 2 to 50,000 years for Perfluoromethane.

Causes of Global Warming

Scientists who work on climate change use General Circulation Models GCMs, statistical global weather forecasting models, in order to make long term weather or climate predictions.

Climate scientists often check on The Reliability of GCMs to improve on their long term climate predictions.

Global Warming Effects

Australia Moves Forward with Desalination Plans
Faced with freshwater shortfalls due to a changing climate, Australia is moving forward with the construction of large scale desalination plants.

Global Warming Effects
What types of global warming effects will people experience in their everday lives?

Questions like the relationship between Climate Change and Hurricanes are popular today because of concerns about changing weather patterns.

Antarctica and Climate Change
Climate changes in and around Antarctica have been comparatively less pronounced to date than climate induced changes around the Arctic region.

Arctic Sea Ice
A changing climate means it's now possible that the Artic Ocean could be ice free during the summer sometime in the immediate future.

Climate Change and Africa
A review of the African position on climate change policy leading to the negotiations in Copenhagen.

Climate Change and Western Glaciers
Changing climate patterns in the United States will place great stress on Western glaciers.

Climate Change in Russia: Permafrost
The article reviews changing permafrost patterns in Russia resulting from a warming climate in Siberia.
Global Warming and the Pacific Walrus
An environment group petitions to have the Pacific Walrus protected because of the potential for a loss of their sea ice habitat.

Hybrid Cars and Climate Change
A review of the most climate friendly 2010 models.

Methane, Permafrost and Climate Change
While Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions tend to receive the most attention with respect to their contributions to a changing climate, another greenhouse gas (GHG), methane (CH₄, more powerful but less long lived that CO₂, continues to receive attention.

Will Global Warming Help Honeybees Dance?
Changing weather patterns might cause honeybees to change their behavior.

so dear reader, let us save our mother earth for next generations. love. peace.

cheerioous~!! (◕‿◕✿)

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Entomology: Types of Insects Traps

Trapping

Collectors use a variety of traps and trapping techniques to capture insects and other arthropods. These range from simple and inexpensive to elaborate and costly. Some are designed to collect certain insects that are rarely collected without a trap. Others are useful for general collecting. The traps and techniques described here are just a small sample of those available to the collector. A collector can invent new traps or modify old designs for unique purposes.

Bait trap

The addition of bait to many traps will attract large numbers of certain types of insects. Baited pitfall traps are common collecting devices. The bait is placed in the bottom of the collecting can and covered with a screen, or it is suspended into or over the trap. Dead animals, rotting foods, and dry cereals are good baits for various crawling insects. One type of pitfall trap, the cereal dish trap, is particularly effective for collecting insects attracted to dung. This trap is made from a cereal bowl filled with 70% ethanol and sunk into the ground. The bait is suspended in a small cup over the trap, supported by a wire coat hanger.

Barrier Trap

When insects hit a barrier in their flight path, they tend to fly upward or drop. Barrier traps placed in flyways rely on such behaviors to capture flying insects. One simple barrier trap is the windowpane trap, which consists of a piece of clear glass or plastic with a shallow trough filled with 70% ethanol attached at the bottom. When the trap is hung across a path, in a flyway, or at the edge of the woods, flying insects crash into it. Those that drop after hitting the glass fall into the trough and are killed.

Emergence Trap

Immature insects live in a wide range of habitats, including plant stems and roots, galls, rotting logs, decaying vegetation, soil, and water. When these insects emerge as adults, they can often be captured in an emergence cage. The cage can be as simple as a net sleeve over a tree branch or a screened box placed over a patch of soil.

Light Trap

Light traps provide a good method for collecting large numbers of night-flying insects or for collecting insects from several locations at once. They are also a valuable tool for individuals who cannot be out at night to collect.

The simplest light trap consists of a UV light (often called a black light) and a collecting pan with alcohol covering the bottom. The pan is placed below the light, and insects flying toward the light eventually drop into the alcohol. When set up near a stream or lake, this trap is very effective for collecting the winged adults of many aquatic insects. Commercial light traps of various designs are also available. Most of these consist of a light source, a series of baffles, a funnel, and a killing jar. The jar usually contains alcohol as the killing agent.

Malaise Trap

Another, more elaborate trap is the malaise trap, which captures flying insects that move upward when they strike a barrier. This trap is a tentlike structure made of netting with a collecting chamber at the top. Insects entering the trap eventually fly or crawl upward while attempting to escape. Instead of escaping, they become trapped in a killing jar or a container of ethanol. Malaise traps can be purchased from commercial suppliers or constructed at home. A dark fabric is recommended for the base. Malaise traps placed across paths or alongside streams, woods, or sheltered clearings frequently yield good catches. Also, when selecting a site, it is best to keep in mind that most insects fly upward.

Pitfall trap

Insects that crawl about on the ground can be captured in a pitfall trap. The simplest trap can be constructed easily by placing a can or plastic container in the ground. Add enough killing agent (such as alcohol) to cover the bottom of the container. To keep rainwater out of these traps, a board can be propped up over the opening.

Snap Trap

Two kinds of traps designed for quantitative sampling may be termed “snap traps.” It consists of a pair of wooden or plastic discs, slotted to the center so as to fit on a tree branch and connected to each other by a pair of rods. A cloth cylinder is affixed at one end to one of the discs and at the other end to a ring sliding on the rods.

After the cloth cylinder has been pulled to one end and has been secured in place, the ring is held by a pair of latches. When insects have settled on the branch, its leaves, or flowers, the latches are released by pulling on a string from a distance, and the trap is snapped shut by a pair of springs on the rods, capturing any insects present. One of the canopy traps operates in a similar fashion. When a remotely controlled latch is pulled, a spring-loaded canopy is snapped over an area of soil, and insects within the canopy are collected by suction or a vacuum device. This trap was designed for use in grasslands.


Sticky Trap

In this type of trap, a board, piece of tape, pane of glass, piece of wire net, cylinder, or other object, often painted yellow, is coated with a sticky substance and suspended from a tree branch or other convenient object. Insects landing on the sticky surface are unable to extricate themselves. The sticky material is later dissolved with a suitable solvent, usually toluene, xylene, ethylacetate, or various combination of these, and the insects are washed first in Cellosolve and then in xylene.

This type of trap should not be used to collect certain specimens, such as Lepidoptera, which are ruined by the sticky substance and cannot be removed without being destroyed. Various sticky-trap materials are available commercially, some with added attractants. However, use caution in selecting a sticky substance because some are difficult to dissolve.


Emergence and Rearing Trap

New Jersey Trap

An emergence trap is any device that prevents adult insects from dispersing when they emerge from their immature stages in any substrate, such as soil, plant tissue, or water. A simple canopy over an area of soil, over a plant infested with larvae, or over a section of stream or other water area containing immature stages of midges, mayflies, and other arthropods will secure the emerging adults. If it is equipped with a retaining device, as in the Malaise trap, the adults can be killed and preserved shortly after emergence.

It must be remembered, however, that many insects should not be killed too soon after emergence because the adults are often teneral or soft bodied and incompletely pigmented and must be kept alive until the body and wings completely harden and colors develop fully. Emergence traps and rearing cages enable the insects to develop naturally while insuring their capture when they mature or when larvae emerge to pupate.



Windowpane Trap

One of the simplest and cheapest traps is a barrier consisting of a windowpane held upright by stakes in the ground or suspended by a line from a tree or from a horizontal line. A trough filled with a liquid killing agent is so placed that insects flying into the pane drop into the trough and drown. They are removed from the liquid, washed with alcohol or other solvent, then preserved in alcohol or dried and pinned. The trap is not recommended for adult Lepidoptera or other insects that may be ruined if collected in fluid.

A modification of this trap uses the central "pane" of a malaise trap instead of a pane of glass. The malaise trap pane covers more space than glass, is easier to transport, and, of course, is not breakable. Various mesh sizes if cloth can also be used depending on the insects targeted. These traps may also be referred to as flight intercept traps.


Tullgren Funnel

The Berlese or Tullgren funnel and its modifications are cleaner and more efficient than sifting to separate insects and mites from leaf mold and similar materials. The sample (usually presifted to remove large debris) is placed on a screen near the top of a funnel. A light bulb can be placed above the sample to produce heat and light, which drive the insects downward into the funnel, or heated coils or a jacket around the funnel can be used to dry the sample and make it inhospitable.

The insects and mites are directed by the funnel into a container, sometimes containing alcohol at the bottom of the funnel. Care should be taken not to dry the sample so rapidly that slow-moving specimens are immobilized before they can leave the sample. To prevent large amounts of debris from falling into the container, place the sample on the screen before the container is put in place.

Flight intercept trap

The most common passive, flight-intercept trap is the Malaise trap (Figure 1). The one used in this inventory is modeled after the description given by Townes (1962). For a complete review on Malaise traps see Steyskal (1981). Malaise traps work on the principle that many flying insects fly to the highest and brightest point (collecting head) when they encounter an obstacle (trap panels). This is a particularly effective method for collecting Diptera and Hymenoptera. A liquid-filled trough or pitfall should be placed along the base of the central wall to collect species that drop when they hit a barrier (e.g., many Coleoptera).

cheerioous~!! (◕‿◕✿)

Assigment: Entomology

Insect development and metamorphosis

Metamorphosis

Each time an insect molts, it gets a little larger. It may also change physically in other ways -- depending on its type of metamorphosis: ametabola, hemimetabola, or holometabola.

Ametabolous insects undergo little or no structural change as they grow older. Immatures are called young; they are physically similar to adults in every way except size and sexual maturity. Other than size, there is no external manifestation of their age or reproductive state.

Hemimetabolous insects exhibit gradual changes in body form during morphogenesis. Immatures are called nymphs or, if aquatic, naiads. Maturation of wings, external genitalia, and other adult structures occurs in small steps from molt to molt. Wings may be completely absent during the first instar, appear in the second or third instar as short wing buds, and grow with each molt until they are fully developed and functional in the adult stage. Developmental changes that occur during gradual metamorphosis are usually visible externally as the insect grows, but adults retain the same organs and appendages as nymphs (eyes, legs, mouthparts, etc.).

Holometabolous insects have immature forms (larvae) that are very different from adults. Larvae are "feeding machines", adapted mostly for consuming food and growing in size. They become larger at each molt but do not acquire any adult-like characteristics. When fully grown, larvae molt to an immobile pupal stage and undergo a complete transformation. Larval organs and appendages are broken down (digested internally) and replaced with new adult structures that grow from imaginal discs, clusters of undifferentiated (embryonic) tissue that form during embryogenesis but remain dormant throughout the larval instars. The adult stage, which usually bears wings, is mainly adapted for dispersal and reproduction.

Most larvae can be grouped into one of five categories based on physical appearance:

Appearance	Larval Type	Common Name	Description	Examples
	Eruciform	Caterpillar	Body cylindrical with short thoracic legs and 2-10 pairs of fleshy abdominal prolegs	Moths and butterflies
	Campodeiform	Crawler	Elongated, flattened body with prominent antennae and/or cerci. Thoracic legs adapted for running	Lady beetle, lacewing
	Scarabaeiform	White grub	Body robust and "C"-shaped with no abdominal prolegs and short thoracic legs	June beetle, dung beetle
	Elateriform	Wireworm	Body long, smooth, and cylindrical with hard exoskeleton and very short thoracic legs	Click beetle, Flour beetle
	Vermiform	Maggot	Body fleshy, worm-like. No head capsule or walking legs	House fly, flesh fly

Pupae can be grouped into one of three categories based on physical appearance:

Appearance	Pupal Type	Common Name	Description	Examples
	Obtect	Chrysalis	Developing appendages (antennae, wings, legs, etc.) held tightly against the body by a shell-like casing. Often found enclosed within a silken cocoon.	Butterflies and moths
	Exarate	None	All developing appendages free and visible externally	Beetles, Lacewings
	Coarctate	Puparium	Body encased within the hard exoskeleton of the next-to-last larval instar	Flies

Plant DNA Extraction

hahaha~

saje nak wat post sengal ni... saye ngah wat assignment ni sbenornye... kikiki~

PLANT DNA EXTRACTION

Meyerowitz et. al. (~1987ish)

A. thaliana has a very small haploid genome and this makes obtaining DNA somewhat difficult. The most notable problem is that DNA is usually contaminated with polysaccharide which inhibit restriction enzymes as well as other DNA modifying enzymes. This problem is most easily solved by using young plants which have not accumulated as much polysaccharide as older plants. The best results are obtained with plants that are two to three weeks post germinated.

1. Harvest plants using forceps - carefully remove any adhering soil by hand.
2. Grind up the following in a mortar and pestle until no large pieces of tissue remain:
   0.5 - 1.5 g plants
   0.5 g of glass beads (75-150 um) per gram of plants
   3 ml proteinase K buffer (0.2 M Tris (pH 8.0), 0.1 M EDTA, 1% Sarkosyl, 100 g/ml proteinase K)
3. Pour into 10 ml test tube. Incubate at 45-50 C for 1 hr.
4. Spin 10 min at top speed in table top centrifuge (~3000 rpm)
5. Decant supernatant to a fresh tube. Adjust volume to 3 ml with proteinase K buffer (with or without proteinase K).
6. Add 6 ml 100% ethanol at room temperature. Invert to mix.
7. Spin 10K rpm for 15 min in SS34 rotor. Discard supernatant.
8. Resuspend pellet in 3 ml Tris-Cl (pH 8.0), 1 mM EDTA (TE). Vortex to resuspend.
9. Extract with phenol, phenol:chloroform, chloroform.
10. Add 6 ml 100% ethanol. Invert to mix.
11. Spin 10K rpm for 15 min. in SS34 rotor. Discard supernatant. Air-dry pellet briefly.
12. Resuspend in 4 ml TE. Vortex to resuspend.
13. Add 4,5 g CsCl, 400 l 10 mg/ml ethidium bromide. Mix.
14. Spin 53K rpm 16-20 hrs VTi65 20 C.

This protocol has been optimized for yield at the expense of high molecular weight DNA. The nuclear DNA can be separated from plastid DNA by running the gradients with Hoest dye, rather than ethidium bromide.